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List of Chinese inventions
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China has been the source of some of the world's most significant inventions, including the Four Great Inventions of ancient China: paper, the compass, gunpowder, and printing (both woodblock and movable type). The list below contains these and other inventions which first appeared in China. It does not include foreign-born technologies which the Chinese cultural realm acquired through contact, such as the windmill from the Islamic Middle East or the telescope from Early modern Europe. It also does not include technologies which were originally invented elsewhere but were later invented separately by the Chinese in their own right, such as the chain pump and odometer. Since there is no evidence that the Chinese were the first to invent writing or the calendar, Chinese inventions such as Chinese writing and the Chinese calendar do not need to be mentioned or described. The same may be applied to articles like Chinese opera, Chinese mathematics, and Chinese architecture. This is also not a list of Chinese discoveries of natural phenomena which can be found in the human body, other organisms, the environment of the world, and immediate solar system.
The Chinese invented original technologies involving mechanics, hydraulics, and mathematics applied to horology, metallurgy, astronomy, agriculture, engineering, music theory, craftsmanship, nautics, and warfare. By the Warring States Period (403–221 BC), the Chinese had advanced metallurgic technology, including the blast furnace and cupola furnace, while the finery forge and puddling process were known by the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). The rise of a sophisticated economic system in China gave birth to inventions such as the use of paper money during the Song Dynasty (960–1279). The invention of gunpowder by at least the 10th century led to an array of unique inventions such as the fire lance, land mine, naval mine, hand cannon, exploding cannonballs, multistage rocket, and rocket bombs with aerodynamic wings and explosive payloads. With the navigational aid of the 11th-century compass and ability to steer at high sea with the 1st-century sternpost rudder, premodern Chinese sailors sailed as far as East Africa and Egypt.123 In regards to water-powered clockworks, the premodern Chinese had used the escapement mechanism since the 8th century and the endless power-transmitting chain drive in the 11th century. They also created large mechanical puppet theaters driven by waterwheels and carriage wheels and wine-serving automatons driven by paddle wheel boats.
The contemporaneous Peiligang and Pengtoushan cultures represent the oldest Neolithic cultures of China and were formed sometime around 7000 BC.4 Some of the first inventions of Neolithic, pre-historic China include semilunar and rectangular stone knives, stone hoes and spades, the cultivation of millet, rice and the soybean, the refinement of sericulture, the building of rammed earth structures with lime-plastered house floors, the creation of the potter's wheel, the creation of pottery with cord-mat-basket designs, the creation of pottery tripods and pottery steamers, and the development of ceremonial vessels and scapulimancy for purposes of divination.56 Francesca Bray argues that the domestication of the ox and buffalo during the Longshan culture (c. 3000 – c. 2000 BC) period, the absence of Longshan-era irrigation or high-yield crops, full evidence of Longshan cultivation of dry-land cereal crops which gave high yields "only when the soil was carefully cultivated," suggest that the plow was known at least by the Longshan culture period and explains the high agricultural production yields which allowed the rise of Chinese civilization during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC).7 With later inventions such as the multiple-tube seed drill and heavy moldboard iron plow, China's agricultural output could sustain a much larger population.
Four Great Inventions
The following is a list of the Four Great Inventions of ancient China—as designated by the late Joseph Needham (1900–1995)—in the chronological order that they were established in China.
Paper
An illustration published in
Wang Zhen's (fl. 1290–1333) book of AD 1313 showing
movable type characters arranged by rhyme scheme in round table compartments
Although it is recorded that the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) court eunuch Cai Lun (c. 50–AD 121) invented the papermaking process and established the use of new raw materials used in making paper, ancient padding and wrapping paper artifacts dating to the 2nd century BC have been found in China, the oldest example of paper being a map from Fangmatan, Tianshui;8 by the 3rd century, paper as a writing medium was in widespread use, replacing traditional but more expensive writing mediums such as strips of bamboo rolled into threaded scrolls, scrolls and strips of silk, wet clay tablets hardened later in a furnace, and wooden tablets (use of oracle bones as a writing medium died out after the Shang Dynasty).910111213 The earliest known piece of paper with writing on it was discovered in the ruins of a Chinese watchtower at Tsakhortei, Alxa League, where Han Dynasty troops had deserted their position in AD 110 following a Xiongnu attack.14 In the papermaking process established by Cai in 105, a boiled mixture of mulberry tree bark, hemp, old linens, and fish nets created a pulp that was pounded into paste and stirred with water; a wooden frame sieve with a mat of sewn reeds was then dunked into the mixture, which was then shaken and then dried into sheets of paper that were bleached under the exposure of sunlight; K.S. Tom says this process was gradually improved through leaching, polishing and glazing to produce a smooth, strong paper.1112
Printing
Woodblock printing: The earliest specimen of woodblock printing discovered is a single-sheet dharani sutra in Sanskrit that was printed on hemp paper between 650 and 670 AD; it was unearthed in 1974 from a Tang tomb near Xi'an.15 A Korean miniature dharani Buddhist sutra discovered in 1966, bearing extinct Chinese writing characters used only during the reign of China's only self-ruling empress, Wu Zetian (r. 690–705), is dated no earlier than 704 and preserved in a Silla Korean temple stupa built in 751.16 However, the earliest known book printed at regular size is the Diamond Sutra made during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), a 5.18 m (17 ft) long scroll which bears the date 868 AD, or the "fifteenth day of the fourth moon of the ninth year" of Emperor Yizong's (859–873) Xiantong 咸通 reign period.17 Joseph Needham and Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin write that the cutting and printing techniques used for the delicate calligraphy of the Diamond Sutra book are much more advanced and refined than the miniature dharani sutra printed earlier.17 The two oldest printed Chinese calendars are dated 877 and 882; they were found at the Buddhist pilgrimage site of Dunhuang; Patricia Ebrey writes that it is no surprise that some of the earliest printed items were calendars, since the Chinese found it necessary to calculate and mark which days were auspicious and which were not.1718
Movable type: The polymath scientist and official Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song Dynasty (960–1279) was the first to describe the process of movable type printing in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, attributing this innovation to a little-known artisan named Bi Sheng (990–1051).19202122 With the use of fired clay characters, Shen described Bi's technical process of making the type, type-setting, printing, and breaking up the type for further use.2322 Bi had experimented with wooden type characters, but their use was not perfected until 1297 to 1298 with the model of the official Wang Zhen (fl. 1290–1333) of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), who also arranged written characters by rhyme scheme on the surface of round table compartments.2420 It was not until 1490 with the printed works of Hua Sui (1439–1513) of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) that the Chinese perfected metal movable type characters, namely bronze.2526 The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) scholar Xu Zhiding of Tai'an, Shandong developed vitreous enamel movable type printing in 1718.27
Effects on bookbinding: The advent of printing in the 9th century revolutionized bookbinding, as late Tang Dynasty paper books evolved from rolled scrolls of paper into folded leaves like a pamphlet, which developed further in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) into 'butterfly' bindings with leaves of paper folded down the center like a common book, then during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) wrapped back bindings had two edges of the leaves attached to the spine and secured with a stiff paper cover on the back, and during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) books finally had thread-stitched bindings in the back.28 It was not until the early 20th century that traditional Chinese thread-stitched bookbinding was replaced by Western-style bookbinding, a parallel to the replacement of traditional Chinese print methods with the modern printing press, in the tradition of Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1400–1468).29
Gunpowder
Although evidence of gunpowder's first use in China comes from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960),30 the earliest known recorded recipes for gunpowder were written by Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in the Wujing Zongyao military manuscript compiled in 1044 during the Song Dynasty (960–1279); the gunpowder formulas described were used in incendiary bombs lobbed from catapults, thrown down from defensive walls, or lowered down the wall by use of iron chains operated by a swape lever.313233 Bombs launched from trebuchet catapults mounted on forecastles of naval ships ensured the victory of Song over Jin forces at the Battle of Caishi in 1161, while the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) used gunpowder bombs during their failed invasion of Japan in 1274 and 1281.32 During the 13th and 14th centuries, gunpowder formulas became more potent (with nitrate levels of up to 91%) and gunpowder weaponry more advanced and deadly, as evidenced in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) military manuscript Huolongjing compiled by Jiao Yu (fl. 14th to early 15th century) and Liu Ji (1311–1375), completed sometime before the latter's death with a preface added by the former in a 1412 Nanyang publication of the work.34
Compass
In San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, Veracruz, Mexico, an ancient hematite artifact from the Olmec era dating roughly 1000 BC indicates the possible use of the lodestone compass in Central America long before it was described in China, yet the Olmecs did not have iron which the Chinese would discover could be magnetized by contact with lodestone.36 Descriptions of lodestone attracting iron were made in the Guanzi, Master Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals and Huainanzi.373839 The Chinese by the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) began using north-south oriented lodestone ladle-and-bowl shaped compasses for divination and geomancy and not yet for navigation.404142 The Lunheng, written by Wang Chong (27 – c. 100 AD) stated in chapter 52: "This instrument resembles a spoon, and when it is placed on a plate on the ground, the handle points to the south".4344 There is, however, another two references under chapter 47 of the same text to the attractive power of a magnet according to Needham (1986),45 but Li Shu-hua (1954) considers it to be lodestone, and states that there is no explicit mention of a magnet in Lunheng.35 Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song Dynasty (960–1279) was the first to accurately describe both magnetic declination (in discerning true north) and the magnetic needle compass in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, while the author Zhu Yu (fl. 12th century) was the first to mention use of the compass specifically for navigation at sea in his book published in 1119.46474849412150 Even before this, however, the Wujing Zongyao military manuscript compiled by 1044 described a thermoremanence compass of heated iron or steel shaped as a fish and placed in a bowl of water which produced a weak magnetic force via remanence and induction; the Wujing Zongyao recorded that it was used as a pathfinder along with the mechanical South Pointing Chariot.515253
Pre-Shang
Inventions which originated in what is now China during the Neolithic age and pre-historic Bronze age are listed in alphabetical order below.
- Bell: Clapper-bells made of pottery have been found in several archaeological sites; 1 in a Yangshao site at Dahecun, Henan; 1 in a Daxi site at Yijiashan, Hubei; 7 in the Majiayao sites in Gansu; 2 in the Longshan sites at Baiying and Wadian, Henan; 1 in a Shijiahe site at Tianmen, Hubei; 2 in a Qijia site at Dahezhuang, Gansu.54 The earliest metal bells, with one found in the Taosi site, and four in the Erlitou site, dated to about 2000 BC, may have been derived from the earlier pottery prototype.55 Early bells not only have an important role in generating metal sound, but arguably played a prominent cultural role. With the emergence of other kinds of bells during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC), they were relegated to subservient functions; at Shang and Zhou sites, they are also found as part of the horse-and-chariot gear and as collar-bells of dogs.56
- Coffin, rectangular wooden: The earliest evidence of wooden coffin remains, dating from the 5000 BC are found in the Tomb 4 at Beishouling, Shaanxi. Clear evidence of wooden coffin in forms of rectangular shape are found in Tomb 152 in an early Banpo site. The Banpo coffin belongs to a four years old girl, measuring 1.4 m (4.5 ft) by 0.55 m (1.8 ft) and 3–9 cm thick. By 3000 BC, as much as 10 wooden coffins are found in the late phase of Dawenkou culture (4100–2600 BC) site at Chengzi, Shandong.5758 The thickness of a wooden coffin composing by more than one timber frame also emphasized the level of nobility, as mentioned in the Classic of Rites,59 Xunzi60 and Zhuangzi,61 and have been found at several Neolithic sites; double coffin, consisting an outer and inner coffins, with the earliest finds in the Liangzhu culture (3400–2250 BC) site at Puanqiao, Zhejiang; triple coffin, consisting of two outer and one inner coffins, are found in the Longshan culture (3000–2000 BC) sites at Xizhufeng and Yinjiacheng in Shandong.62 The double coffin remained used during the Warring States Period (403–221 BC), such as the lacquered double coffin of Marquis Yi of Zeng,63 and have also found in an archaeologial site of Xiongnu's aristocracy in Inner Mongolia.64
- Dagger-axe: The dagger-axe or ge was developed from agricultural stone implement during the Neothilic, dagger-axe made of stone are found in the Longshan culture (3000–2000 BC) site at Miaodian, Henan. It also appeared as ceremonial and symbolic jade weapon at around the same time, two being dated from about 2500 BC, are found at the Lingjiatan site in Anhui.65 The first bronze ge appeared at the early Bronze Age Erlitou site,65 where two were being found among the over 200 bronze artifacts (as of 2002) at the site,66 three jade ge were also discovered from the same site.67 Total of 72 bronze ge in Tomb 1004 at Houjiazhuang, Anyang,68 39 jade ge in tomb of Fu Hao and over 50 jade ge at Jinsha site were found alone.65 It was the basic weapon of Shang (c. 1600 – 1050 BC) and Zhou (c. 1050 –256 BC) infantry, although it was sometimes used by the "striker" of charioteer crews. It consisted of a long wooden shaft with a bronze knife blade attached at a right angle to the end. The weapon could be swung down or inward in order to hook or slash, respectively, at an enemy.69 By the early Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), military use of the bronze ge had become very limited (and mostly ceremonial); they were slowly phased out during the Han Dynasty by iron spears and iron ji halberds.70
- Drum, alligator hide: Drums (made from clay) have been found over a board area at the Neolithic sites from modern Shandong in the east to Qinghai in the west, dating to a period of 5500–2350 BC. In literary records, drums manifested shamanistic characteristics and were often used in ritual ceremonies.71 Drums covered with alligator skin for ceremonial use are mentioned in the Shijing.7273 During the archaic period, alligators probably lived along the east coast of China, including southern Shandong. The earliest alligator drums, comprising a wooden frame covered with alligator skin are found in the archaeological sites at Dawenkou (4100 BC – 2600 BC), as well as several sites of Longshan (3000 BC – 2000 BC) in Shandong and Taosi (2300 BC – 1900 BC) in southern Shanxi.74
- Fermented beverage: Archaeologists have discovered residue of a fermented beverage that was 9,000-years old in pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan.75767778 Chemical tests (including gas and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, infrared spectrometry, and stable isotope analysis) have revealed a fermented beverage of hawthorn fruit and wild grape, beeswax associated with honey, and rice. Herbal wine and a filtered rice or millet beverage was found 5000 years later in sealed Shang and Western Zhou bronze containers and has been identified as containing specialized rice or millet, flavored with herbs, flowers, and possibly tree resins.7978 It was found that the chemical composition of the samples is similar to those in modern rice, rice wine, grape wine, beehive wax, tannins, several herbal medicines and hawthorn.80
- Fork: The fork had been used in China long before the chopstick; a bone fork has been discovered by archaeologists at a burial site of the early Bronze Age Qijia culture (2400–1900 BC), and forks have been found in tombs of the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC) and subsequent Chinese dynasties.81
- Jade ritual object: Jade artifacts have been found in large quantities dating throughout the entire Neolithic period. The earliest development of jade use comes from the Xinglongwa culture (6200–5400 BC) at the Liao River region; jade carving reached to its height by the late Hongshan culture (3500–3000 BC), as shown in the Niuheliang site; in the lower Yangzi River, jade objects first occurred in the Majiabang and Songze cultures (5000–3200 BC), and became prevalent in the Liangzhu culture (3200–2000 BC); in the middle Yangzi River, jades appeared in the middle Daxi and Qujialing cultures (4000–2600 BC), and flourished during the Shijiahe culture (2600–2000 BC); in the lower Yellow River, jade objects are mainly dated to the Dawenkou and Longshan cultures (4300–2000 BC),82 although they have been found earlier in the Houli culture (6500–5500 BC).83 Jade plaques with the design of the eight trigrams, dating from about 2500 BC, have also been found at Lingjiatan, Anhui.84 Jade in distinctive shapes known later as bi, cong, gui, zhang, huang, and hu or the six ritual jades are mentioned in the Rites of Zhou;85 the earliest bi and huang were produced in the Hongshan culture at Niuheliang and Dongshanzui sites; the cong appear in large numbers in the Liangzhu culture at Fanshan and Yaoshan sites; the gui appear in large numbers in the Longshan culture, examples are found in the Dachengshan site; the zhang and hu appeared relatively late, with one each found at the Shang Dynasty sites in Erligang and Yinxu.86
- Lacquer: Lacquer was used in China since the Neolithic period and came from a substance extracted from the lac tree found in China.87 A red wooden bowl, which is believed to be the earliest known lacquer container,88 was unearthed at a Hemudu (c. 5000 BC – c. 4500 BC) site.89 Michael Loewe says coffins at many early Bronze Age sites seem to have been lacquered, and articles of lacquered wood may also have been common, but the earliest well-preserved examples of lacquer come from Eastern Zhou Dynasty (771–256 BC) sites.90 However, Wang Zhongshu disagrees, stating that the oldest well-preserved lacquerware items come from a Xiajiadian (c. 2000 – c. 1600 BC) site in Liaoning excavated in 1977, the items being red lacquered vessels in the shape of Shang Dynasty bronze gu vessels.89 Wang states that many lacquerware items from the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC), such as fragments of boxes and basins, were found, and had black designs such as the Chinese dragon and taotie over a red background.89 Queen Fu Hao (died c. 1200 BC) was buried in a lacquered wooden coffin.91 There were three imperial workshops during the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) established solely for the purpose of crafting lacquerwares; fortunately for the historian, Han lacquerware items were inscribed with the location of the workshop where they were produced and the date they were made, such as a lacquerware beaker found in the Han colony in northwestern Korea with the inscription stating it was made in a workshop near Chengdu, Sichuan and dated precisely to 55 AD.92
- Millet, cultivation of: The discovery in northern China of domesticated varieties of broomcorn and foxtail millet from 8500 BC, or earlier, suggests that millet cultivation might have predated that of rice in parts of Asia.93 Clear evidence of millet began to cultivate by 6500 BC at sites of Cishan, Peiligang, and Jiahu.94 Archaeological remains from Cishan sum up to over 300 storeage pits, 80 with millet remains, with a total millet storage capacity estimated for the site of about 100,000 kg of grain.95 By 4000 BC, most Yangshao areas were using an intensive form of foxtail millet cultivation, complete with storage pits and finely prepared tools for digging and harvesting the crop. The success of the early Chinese millet farmers is still reflected today in the DNA of many east Asian populations, such studies have shown that the ancestors of those farmers probably arrived in the area between 30,000 and 20,000 BP, and their bacterial haplotypes are still found in today populations throughout eastern Asia.96
- Noodle: In 2005, an archaeological excavation at the Lajia site of the Qijia culture (2400–1900 BC) revealed 4,000-year-old noodles made of millet (instead of traditional wheat flour) preserved by an upturned earthenware bowl that had created a vacuum between it and the sediment it was found on; the noodles resemble the traditional lamian noodle of China, which is made by "repeatedly pulling and stretching the dough by hand," according to a BBC News report on the find.97
- Pottery, tripod: Tripod pottery was a characteristic vessels of northern China from the Neolithic Peiligang culture through the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC).101 Tripod pottery bowls and pots had been unearthed from several sites belonging to the Peiligang culture (7000–5000 BC), including type site, Jiahu, Shuiquan, Shigu and Beigang.102103 Tripods were known as cooking vessels, such as the hollow-legged li and solid-legged ding, and pouring pitcher, such as gui, they have three properly constructed and non-stubby legs stand on ground. Outside mainland China, tripod pottery associated with Neolithic cultures has been found only in Taiwan and mainland Southeast Asia. The discoveries of tripods at Ban Kao site, brought question about the relationships of the Southeast Asian tripod pottery with other tripod pottery cultures of mainland China.104105 Bird-shaped tripod pottery, such as one found at Hua County, Shaanxi,106 and the gui of the middle and late Dawenkou culture (3500–2600 BC) may also had associated with the mythologial three-legged bird or golden crow.107 The earliest depiction of a three-legged bird is found on the pottery of the Miaodigou culture (4000–3000 BC) in Henan,108 they are also mentioned in the Huainanzi and Records of the Grand Historian.109
- Plastromancy: The earliest use of turtle shells comes from the archaeological site in Jiahu site. The shells, containing small pebbles of various size, color, and quantity, were drilled with small holes, suggesting that each pair of them was tied together originally. Similar finds have also been found in the Dawenkou burial sites of about 4000–3000 BC, as well as in Henan, Sichuan, Jiangsu and Shaanxi.110 The turtle-shell shakers for the most part are made of the shell of land turtles,111 identified as Cuora flavomarginata.112 These rattles have been unearthed in quantity, with 70 being found in the Jiahu site, and another 52 being found in the Dawenkou culture sites at Dadunzi, Jiangsu, and type site, Liulin and Wangyin in Shandong.54 Archaeologists believe that these shells were used either as rattles in ceremonial dances, shamantic healing tools or ritual paraphernalia for divinational purposes.113
- Plowshare, triangular-shaped: Triangular-shaped stone plowshares are found at the sites of Majiabang culture dated to 3500 BC around Lake Taihu. Plowshares have also been discovered at the nearby Liangzhu and Maqiao sites roughly dated to the same period. David R. Harris says this indicates that more intensive cultivation in fixed, probably bunded, fields had developed by this time. According to Mu Yongkang and Song Zhaolin’s classification and methods of use, the triangular plow assumed many kinds and were the departure from the Hemudu and Luojiajiao spade, with the Songze small plough in mid-process. The post-Liangzhu plows used draft animals.114115
- Rice, cultivation of: In 2002, a Chinese and Japanese group reported the discovery in eastern China of fossilized phytoliths of domesticated rice apparently dating back to 11,900 BC or earlier. However, phytolith data are controversial in some quarters due to potential contamination problems.116 It is likely that demonstrated rice was cultivated in the middle Yangtze Valley by 7000 BC, as shown in finds from the Pengtoushan culture at Bashidang, Changde, Hunan. By 5000 BC, rice had been domesticated at Hemudu culture near the Yangtze Delta and was being cooked in pots.117 Although millet remained the main crop in northern China throughout history, several sporadic attempts were made by the state to introduce rice around the Bohai Gulf as early as 1st century.118 At present, rice remains the main diet in southern and northeastern China as well as Korea and Japan.
- Salt, use of: The earliest salt use is argued to have taken place on Lake Yuncheng, Shanxi by 6000 BC.119 Strong archaeological evidence of salt making dating to 2000 BC is found in the ruins of Zhongba at Chongqing. The historical records show that salt and iron monopolies often provided the bulk of state revenue, and remained important to state finance until the 20th century.120121 The Discourse on Salt and Iron, written by Huan Kuan during the 1st century BC relates a debate on the state monopoly over salt and iron production and distribution.
- Soybean, cultivation of: The cultivation of soybeans began in the eastern half of northern China by 2000 BC, but is almost certainly much older.124 Liu et al (1997) stated that soybean was first originated in China and was domesticated about 3500 BC.125 By the 5th century, soybeans were being cultivated in much of eastern Asia, but the crop did not move beyond this region until well into the 20th century.126 Written records of the cultivation and use of the soybean in China date back at least as far as the Western Zhou Dynasty.127
- Steamer, pottery appliance for cooking: Archaeological excavations shown that using steam to cook began with the pottery cooking vessels known as yan steamer; a yan composed of two vessesl, a zeng with perforated floor surmounted on a pot or caldron with a tripod base and a top cover. The earliest yan steamer dating from about 5000 BC was unearthed in the Banpo site.128 In the lower Yangzi River, zeng pots first appeared in the Hemudu culture (5000–4500 BC) and Liangzhu culture (3200–2000 BC) and used to steam rice; there are also yan steamers unearthed in several Liangzhu sites, including 3 found at the Chuodun and Luodun sites in southern Jiangsu.129 In the Longshan culture (3000–2000 BC) site at Tianwang in western Shandong, 3 large yan steamers were discovered.130 During the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC), symbols for different kinds of food appliances, including the yan steamer, were inscribed on the bronze vessels.131 They were also found in the 13th century BC tomb of Fu Hao.132
- Taotie motif: The taotie was a decorative mask motif found on artifacts. The earliest antecedent of taotie motif was found at the Gaomiao (5400–4800 BC) site in Hunan in 1991. The taotie motif are also found on the pottery and jade artifacts in the Hemudu culture (5000–4500 BC), Longshan culture (3000–2000 BC) in Shandong, Shijiahe culture (2500–2000 BC) and Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC).133 The most complicated design of the taotie motif found in the Neothilic sites comes from the ceremonial jades of Liangzhu culture (3400–2250 BC) sites at Fanshan and Yaoshan.134 The taotie motif of Longshan culture in Shandong and Bronze Age Erlitou site are considers as the mid-process example of late Shang Dynasty.133134 Despite that taotie motif are commonly found on bronze vessels of the latter half of late Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC), it promptly went into decline and disappeared by the middle Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 1050–771 BC).134 The taotie was first mentioned by name in the Zuozhuan, while the earliest description and literary description of its appearance on ding comes from the Master Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals.133
- Treetrunk coffin: The treetrunk coffin, single trunk coffin or boat coffin was one of the common burials found mainly in the southern China. One of the few earliest boat coffins are found among the 92 burial tombs in the Songze culture (4000–3000 BC) site at Jiaxing, Zhejiang, similar finds can also be found in the middle phase of Dawenkou culture (4100–2600 BC) sites.62 In 2006, a treetrunk coffin measuring 6.84 m in length, dating back to the Warring States Period (403–221 BC), are found in a site at Chengdu, Sichuan.135
A basin cover for a "coffin urn" from the Neolithic
Yangshao culture (c. 5000 – c. 3000 BC), used for the burial of a child, from
Shaanxi
- Urn, pottery burial: The first evidence of pottery urn dating from about 7000 BC comes from the early Jiahu site, where a total of 32 burial urns are found,136 another early finds are in Laoguantai, Shaanxi.62 There are about 700 burial urns unearthed over the Yangshao (5000–3000 BC) areas and consisting more than 50 varieties of form and shape. The burial urns were used mainly for childs, but also sporadically for adults, as shown in the finds at Yichuan, Lushan and Zhengzhou in Henan.57 A secondary burials containing bones from child or adult are found in the urns in Hongshanmiao, Henan.137 Small hole was drilled in most of the child and adult burial urns, and is believe to enable the spirit to access.138 It is recorded in the Classic of Rites that the earthenware coffins were used in the time of legendary period,139 the tradition of burying in pottery urns lasted until the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) when it gradually disappered.62 Most of the burial urns, starting from the Warring States Period (403–221 BC), are found in areas of Hebei and Liaoning.140
- Vessel, use of skull as: The earliest archaeological evidence of vessels made of human skulls comes from a Longshan culture (3000 BC–2000 BC) site at Jiangou, Handan, where two were found.141 Another one at the northeastern quarter of the Bronze Age Erligang site dated to 1460–1384 BC,142 included refuse deposit of about 100 human skulls, mostly of young males that were sawn open at brow level.143144 Most of those skull vessels were contributed from prisoners of war and were used in rituals for ancestor worship during the early Shang Dynasty. In literary records, writings concerning the use of skull vessel comes from the Lushi Chunqiu, Hanfeizi, Huainanzi, Shiji, Shuoyuan and Zhan Guo Ce, which includes a reference to Zhibo (d. 455 BC), whose skull was made into a drinking cup by his enemy after being killed.141145
Shang and later
Inventions which made their first appearance in China after the Neolithic age, specifically during and after the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC), are listed in alphabetical order below.
A
- Acupuncture: Acupuncture, the traditional Chinese medicinal practice of inserting needles into specific points of the body for therapeutic purposes and relieving pain, was first mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing compiled from the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC (Warring States Period to Han Dynasty).146 The oldest known acupuncture needles made of gold, found in the tomb of Liu Sheng (d. 113 BC), date to the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD); the oldest known stone-carved depiction of acupuncture was made during the Eastern Han (25–220 AD); the oldest known bronze statue of an acupuncture mannequin dates to 1027 during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).147 Acupuncture is still used to treat pediatric nocturnal enuresis, i.e. bedwetting.148
A cylindrical bronze wine container made during the late
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC);
gentry scholars of the
Song Dynasty (960–1279) excavated a number of ancient items and judged their age by examining their inscriptions, decorative motifs, and physical forms, compiling this information in archaeological catalogues commissioned by the state. Although archaeological interest in China waned after the Song, it was revived again during the mid 17th century (
Qing Dynasty), with pursuits such as using ancient inscriptions to verify and correct the meanings of
characters in
dictionaries.
149
Emperor Yang of Sui (r. 604–617), in a posthumous portrait painting by the
Tang artist
Yan Liben (600–673); he had automatic-opening doors installed in the private studies of his palatial library
- Animal zodiac: The earliest and most complete version of the animal zodiac mentions twelve animals which differ slightly (for instance, the dragon is absent, represented by a worm).150 Each animal matches the earthly branches and were written on bamboo slips from Shuihudi, dated to the late 4th century BC,151 as well as from Fangmatan, dating to the late 3rd century BC.151 Before these archaeological finds, the Lunheng written by Wang Chong (27 – c. 100 AD) during the 1st century provided the earliest transmitted example of a complete duodenary animal cycle.152
- Archaeology, catalogues and epigraphy: During the Song Dynasty (960–1279), the scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) analyzed alleged ancient artifacts bearing archaic inscriptions in bronze and stone, which he preserved in a collection of some 400 rubbings;153 Patricia Ebrey writes that he pioneered early ideas in epigraphy.154 The Kaogutu (考古圖) or "Illustrated Catalogue of Examined Antiquity" (preface dated 1092) compiled by Lü Dalin (呂大臨) (1046–1092) is one of the oldest known catalogues to systematically describe and classify ancient artifacts which were unearthed; it featured in writing and illustrations an assortment of 210 bronze items and 13 jade items of government and private collections that dated to the Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC) to Han (202 BC – 220 AD) dynasties.155 Another catalogue was the Chong xiu Xuanhe bogutu (重修宣和博古圖) or "Revised Illustrated Catalogue of Xuanhe Profoundly Learned Antiquity" (compiled from 1111 to 1125), commissioned by Emperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100–1125), and also featured illustrations of some 840 vessels and rubbings.156149153 This catalogue was criticized by Hong Mai (洪迈) (1123–1202), who found that descriptions of certain ancient vessels dating to the Han Dynasty were incorrect when he compared them to actual Han Dynasty specimens he obtained for study.156 Song scholars established a formal system of dating these artifacts by examining their inscriptions, decorative motif styles, and physical shapes.155 Zhao Mingcheng (趙明誠) (1081–1129) stressed the importance of utilizing ancient inscriptions to correct discrepancies and errors in later texts discussing ancient events, such as with dates, geographical locations of historical events, genealogies, and official titles.157155153 Ancient inscriptions on vessels were also used to revive ancient rituals for use in ceremonies.155158 Instead of stressing the revival of ancient rituals, Shen Kuo (1031–1095) was more interested in discovering ancient manufacturing techniques and functionality.158 Unlike many of his peers who attributed the crafting of ancient ritual vessels to sages of old, Shen asserted that they were merely products of ancient artisans, just like in his time.158 Shen also incorporated his study of ancient relics into other disciplines, such as music, mathematics, and optics.158 Shen examined carved reliefs of the Zhuwei Tomb and concluded that they displayed Han Dynasty era clothing.158 Shen unearthed a surveying tool in a garden of Jiangsu which Joseph Needham asserts was Jacob's staff.159 Bruce G. Trigger writes that interests in antiquarian studies of ancient inscriptions and artifacts waned after the Song Dynasty, but were revived by early Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) scholars such as Gu Yanwu (1613–1682) and Yan Ruoju (1636–1704).149 Craig Clunas also states that epigraphic studies weren't revived until the Qing Dynasty, but that printed copies of the Chong xiu Xuanhe bogutu were widely circulated in the 16th century during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644).160 Trigger asserts that archaeology as a discipline of its own never developed in China and was always considered a branch of historiography instead.161
- Automatic opening doors, foot-activated trigger: Emperor Yang (r. 604–617) of the Sui Dynasty (581–618) had a private library installed in the Guanwen Hall of the palace at the capital of Daxing (modern Xi'an), having a total of fourteen studies with luxurious apparel and furniture.172 At every third study there was a square door with curtains suspended above it as well as two figurine statues of flying immortals.172 In the emperor's entourage were serving maids holding "perfume burners"; as he walked towards any of these entrances, they would walk in front of him and press their feet down on a trigger mechanism which not only caused the flying immortals to sweep down and pull the curtains out of the way, but made the door-halves swing backwards and opened all the cabinet doors to the book cases within the study.172 When the emperor exited the study, the trigger was activated again and everything returned to its closed original state.172 It should be noted the Chinese were not the first to invent automatic opening doors, which were invented for a 1st century Roman temple designed by Heron of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD), although his did not involve a foot-activated trigger mechanism,172 but worked with the aid of steam power.173
B
The Spinning Wheel, by
Northern Song (960–1127) artist Wang Juzheng; the Chinese invented the
belt drive by the 1st century BC for silk
quilling devices. This was essential for the invention of the later
spinning wheel, the latter invented in either
China or
India around the 11th century and was first mentioned in
Europe in the statutes of a guild at
Speyer,
Germany in about 1280.
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